Assignment 0406 Review and Critical Thinking Parenting Skills
Introduction
The spread of the pandemic COVID-nineteen in Italy from February 2020 and the subsequent health emergency led to several restrictive measures. Schools and universities have been airtight at the finish of February, and starting from March 9th, 2020, a quarantine measure became necessary leading to a general closure of almost all public businesses and work activities.
Children and families have been deprived of their educational, piece of work, and sport activities, just also from all their friendship and relational contacts. Suddenly parents had to manage their children at home from school 24 h a day and, at the same time, most of them had to get-go smart-working from habitation, still carrying out their children's school commitments. Many parents besides had to manage difficulties and pain related to having sick or dead relatives, having had wages reductions, or in some cases, having lost their work. It is easy to understand how Italian families have been exposed to a very potent emotional and psychological stress.
This state of affairs had relevant repercussions on daily life of families, especially of children that have been deprived of their socialization and play spaces. The parents suddenly became the only bespeak of reference for their children since the other references and educational figures were no longer available.
As enlightened by the Globe Health Organization (WHO, 2020a,b), this situation could take long-term negative consequences on psychological well-being and at that place is a need to invest in mental wellness services and other services. A recent review stressed how people all over the world can testify many different psychological disorder symptoms related to the pandemic (Shahyad and Mohammadi, 2020). The WHO (2020a) highlighted that children were also showing signs of mental illness. In fact, both international and domestic studies showed that, during the lockdown, children exhibited several bug, such every bit anxiety and emotional and behavioral disorders (Jiao et al., 2020; Spinelli et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2020).
The European Pediatric Clan–Union of National European Pediatric Societies and Associations (EPAUNEPSA; Jiao et al., 2020) has stressed the importance to accost children's psychological needs during the pandemic due to the negative repercussions on their psychological well-existence, highlighting the relevant protective role of parents in decreasing their fear and stress. Research on psychological consequences of traumatic events, such as the terroristic assault of September 11, 2001, showed how children tin as well experience long-term furnishings on psychological well-being, reporting mental disorders subsequently 6 months (Hoven et al., 2005).
All these information highlight the importance of non underestimating the psychological risks that children and their families could face up. In a report on May 13th, 2020, the Un also underlined how, during the COVID-xix pandemic, the emotional bug of children and adolescents were exacerbated by family stress, social isolation, interruption of schoolhouse and educational action, and uncertainty for the future which occurred in critical moments of their emotional development (United nations, 2020). Understanding how to strengthen parents and families in this situation, with the aim to protect children, represents an important goal that researchers should have in this flow because it is possible that other future pandemics will affect humanity (Cluver et al., 2020).
The express research conducted to appointment on the effects of the COVID-nineteen pandemic on well-being of parents and their children both in China and in Italy showed that COVID-19 related risks, such as (a) living in a red zone (i.e., a high-chance zone like Lombardia and Veneto for Italy), (b) beingness a parent positive to SARS-COV-2, (c) having relatives or friends positive to the SARS-COV-two or who died from the SARS-COV-2, and (d) living in a high-risk environment (i.e., not having an open space in the home during the lockdown, losing a job during the pandemic, having a low income, non having internet connection), did not take strong negative direct effects on families' well-being (Spinelli et al., 2020) or on children'due south symptoms and problematic behaviors per se (Jiao et al., 2020). Actually, the research conducted by Spinelli et al. (2020) in Italy showed that information technology was the parenting stress related to the health emergency, the pandemic, and the lockdown that increased children's psychological, emotional, and behavioral issues. In line with these findings, Wang et al. (2020) suggested the need to deeply empathise the family operation and processes that can promote children's psychological well-being during the pandemic.
For this reason, this report focused on identifying which parental psychological variables can mediate the relationship between parents' psychological distress during the pandemic and the lockdown and their children'south emotional regulation, in order to understand which possible intervention should exist implemented to meliorate families' well-being. Ii contempo meta-analyses highlighted the relevant role that the parent–child human relationship can take in promoting children's effortful cocky-regulation (Pallini et al., 2018) and in decreasing children's behavioral problems, specifically attention issues (Pallini et al., 2019).
The stress of quarantine can bear on psychological well-being of adults, as confirmed in a recent review (Brooks et al., 2020), and might too have long-term effects (Liu et al., 2012). A study conducted on parents and children quarantined in 2009 during the H1N1 flu showed that the high-stressful isolation increased parents' psychological distress that in turn had an impact on their children's well-existence (Sprang and Silman, 2013). Children who have parents with high levels of stress showed more than externalizing bug and developed less emotion regulation (Deater-Deckard and Panneton, 2017).
As reported by Leary and Hoyle (2009), psychological distress upsets the power to self-regulate (Tillema et al., 2001; Scott and Cervone, 2002) merely regulatory emotional cocky-efficacy is crucial in the self-regulation of relationships and behavior (Bandura et al., 2003). According to Bandura (1997), psychological distress, such as lack of social support or parental depression, tin can affect parenting cocky-efficacy, which is the belief that parents have to exist able to manage their parental tasks successfully and that it is, in turn, related to children's adjustment (Jones and Prinz, 2005).
Some previous studies showed that the relationship betwixt parental mental health and children's emotional and behavioral well-existence is mediated by positive parenting strategies (Giallo et al., 2014). Co-ordinate to Eisenèberg et al. (2005), parents' positivity and warmth can promote effortful control in children, reducing their externalizing behaviors. Likewise, self-efficacy, specifically parenting cocky-efficacy, can function as a mediator betwixt environmental variables or psychological atmospheric condition related to an external state of affairs (e.g., the stress related to the pandemic) and parenting competence. In fact, environmental aspects might also indirectly affect parents' belief to be competent in managing parental tasks, and this could lead to less psychological well-being of the children (Jones and Prinz, 2005). For this reason, it is important that parents accept a skilful parenting self-efficacy in order to display positive parenting strategies that can foster adaptive functioning and emotion regulation in children (Stack et al., 2010).
Aims and Hypotheses
Within the theoretical framework of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1997), the present study aimed to investigate a path model in which parenting self-efficacy and parents' regulatory emotional self-efficacy (related to COVID-19 lockdown) mediated the human relationship between parents' psychological distress and both children's emotional regulation, and children'south lability/negativity, in line with a previous report that stressed how parenting cocky-efficacy can mediate the human relationship between parents' psychological distress and children's adjustment (Giallo et al., 2014). Additionally, in our model parents' psychological distress was likewise predicted by being exposed to several risks related to COVID-nineteen quarantine and the pandemic.
Moreover, the second aim was to assess whether children'due south biological sex, children's age, and geographical area (Northern Italy, which is the most at-risk area for the spread of the pandemic and for the take a chance of contagion, vs. the rest of Italia) chastened the structural paths of the model. There is evidence that children's biological sex can affect parents' way to respond to children (Sanders and Morawska, 2018) and that parenting cocky-efficacy tin can change over time (Deater-Deckard and Panneton, 2017), growing during early childhood (Weaver et al., 2008), and decreasing when children become adolescents (Glatz and Buchanan, 2015). Conversely, we did not wait to find any differences regarding living (or not living) in a loftier at-gamble zone for the COVID-xix (i.e., Northern Italy), equally found past recent Italian and Chinese studies (Jiao et al., 2020; Spinelli et al., 2020).
Materials and Methods
Participants
The present report was conducted in Italy, via an online survey, during April 2020 when there was a lockdown related to the wellness emergency due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, Italian parents with a child aged betwixt 6 and 13 years were recruited through a snowball sampling procedure to consummate the online survey. At the fourth dimension of data drove, Italia had been in quarantine for more than i month. A link to the survey was shared among parents using different social networks (due east.g., Facebook, WhatsApp), also asking parents to share the link amid their contacts. Overall, 417 parents have had access to the survey, and a total of 277 valid questionnaires were used in the nowadays investigation, yielding a response rate of 66.4%. Parents' historic period ranged from 30 to 58 years erstwhile (Grand age = 43.36, SD age = 4.76) and the recruited sample mostly consisted of mothers (north = 248; 89.5%). As abovementioned, children were anile between 6 and 13 years (M age = 9.66, SD age = 2.29) and were almost equally distributed for biological sex (48% were boys and 52% were girls). Parents' socioeconomic condition (SES) was predominantly medium-high (92.one%; n = 255). 14.1% (n = 39) lived alone at dwelling house with children during the quarantine. 62% (n = 171) of parents were from northern Italy, the Italian area most affected by the pandemic, and 37.ix% (n = 105) were from Central and Southern Italy which were areas less affected by the pandemic (although they were too put in lockdown). Regarding their work situation, 195 parents (70.4%) continued to piece of work and earn every bit before the quarantine, while 82 parents (29.6%) lost their works or have had wage reductions or layoffs. 7.9% (n = 22) were health workers and v.8% (n = xvi) were health workers in a hospital department that treated SARS-COV-ii-positive patients. 91.7% of parents (n = 254) did non have any relative tested positive for the SARS-COV-2, and viii.3% (northward = 23) had at to the lowest degree i relative that tested positive for the SARS-COV-2. 96.8% (n = 268) have not-hospitalized relatives due to SARS-COV-2, and 3.2% (n = 9) accept at to the lowest degree one hospitalized relative. Finally, 32.5% of parents (due north = 90) did not take any acquaintance or a loved i that tested positive to SARS-COV-2, and 67.five% (n = 187) had at to the lowest degree ane acquaintance or a loved one that tested positive for SARS-COV-ii. Each parent gave his/her consent by clicking "Yes, I take to participate in the study" on the commencement page of the survey. This written report was approved by the Ethics Committee of Sapienza University of Rome, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, protocol number: 427, April xvi, 2020.
Two ability analyses were conducted to determine the recommended minimum sample size: (one) for detecting a meaning bivariate issue and (ii) for conducting a structural equation model (SEM; Cohen, 1988). A moderate effect size of 0.25 was anticipated with a ability level set at 0.fourscore and a meaning blastoff level set at 0.05. The minimum sample size necessary to discover a pregnant bivariate effect was N = 124. Regarding the SEM, with five latent and 15 observed variables, using the software developed by Soper (2020), results indicated that the required minimum sample size to run a SEM and detect a significant effect was N = 229.
Measures
COVID Take chances Index
Using a similar procedure as used by Spinelli et al. (2020), nosotros created an ad hoc index that assessed risks related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, a composite alphabetize was created given one point for each of the post-obit risk factors, if present: (a) relatives that tested positive for SARS-COV-2, (b) friends or acquaintances that tested positive for SARS-COV-2, (c) hospitalized relatives due to SARS-COV-2, (d) living in northern Italy, which was the almost at-risk area for the spread of the pandemic and for the risk of contagion, (e) being a health worker, and (f) existence a health worker in hospital departments that treated SARS-COV-2 positive patients.
Family Risk Index
Again, using a similar procedure as used by Spinelli et al. (2020), we created an ad hoc alphabetize that assessed risks related to family situation during the quarantine and the pandemic. Specifically, a blended alphabetize was created given one point for each of the following gamble factors if present: (a) a lower SES, (b) a worsened working situation during the quarantine, and (c) existence a unmarried or divorced parent who had to manage her/his own children at dwelling house solitary during the quarantine. Both the family chance alphabetize and the COVID risk index are intended as summative rating scales that were created ad hoc for this research.
Parents' Psychological Distress
Parents' psychological distress during the lockdown was evaluated using the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al., 1983; Italian validation by Mondo et al., 2019). Parents were asked to think most the terminal month. The scale is equanimous of x items that parents rated on 5 point-Likert scales from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). An example item is "During concluding month how do you commonly feel nervous and stressed?" The scale showed a skillful reliability and validity also in the Italian validation (Mondo et al., 2019). In the nowadays sample, the mensurate showed a good reliability, Cronbach's alpha of 0.84.
Parents' Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy
The Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy Scale (Caprara et al., 2013b) is a 13-particular scale that evaluates the belief of parents to exist able to manage with their negative emotions (i.e., anger, sadness, fear, and guilt) during the COVID-19 lockdown on a 5 point-Likert scale from 1 (Not able) to 5 (Able). The scale was modified request parents to think virtually the quarantine period related to COVID-xix health emergency, and the following item was added to the scale "How exercise you feel able to manage the anxiety acquired by hearing the news nigh coronavirus that is given on TV or that you read on the cyberspace?" The scale showed practiced validity and reliability (Caprara et al., 2013a,b). In the nowadays sample, the scale showed a good reliability: Cronbach's blastoff of 0.87.
Parenting Self-Efficacy
Parents completed the Parenting Cocky-Agency Measures (Dumka et al., 1996; Baiocco et al., 2017) which is an 8-item scale that evaluates the conventionalities of parents to be able to manage with daily parental demands (i.east., feeling to be a good parent, working to face and solve difficulties with their children) during the month of lockdown on 7-point Likert scales from 1 (seldom) to 7 (ever). The calibration was modified, request parents to think nigh the quarantine period related to COVID-nineteen health emergency, and three items were added to the original calibration. These iii items asked parents how they experience able to reassure their children nigh the health emergency, to organize their children'due south daily life during the quarantine, and to explain to their children what is happening. The scale showed expert validity and reliability (Baiocco et al., 2017, 2018). In the present sample, the calibration showed a good reliability: Cronbach's alpha of 0.87.
Children'southward Emotion Regulation
Parents were asked to think nearly their child during the quarantine and to complete a short version of the Emotion Regulation Checklist (Molina et al., 2014). This is a 10-item calibration that evaluates two sub-dimensions, namely, emotional regulation (i.eastward., positive emotions, beingness able to give voice to his/her negative emotions) and lability/negativity (i.e., acrimony, disruptive behaviors, excessive exuberance) of children during the COVID-19 lockdown on a four point-Likert scale from one (Almost never) to 4 (Almost always). The scale showed proficient validity and reliability (Molina et al., 2014; Di Maggio et al., 2016). In the present sample, both emotional regulation and lability/negativity scores showed acceptable reliability, respectively Cronbach's alpha of 0.65 and 0.78.
Data Analysis
Firstly, bivariate correlations among variables were calculated along with descriptives. Later on, a mediation assay with latent variables was performed via SEM, employing a parceling strategy (due east.g., Bagozzi and Heatherton, 1994; Little et al., 2002). A parcel represents an amass of different items measuring a specific construct (Little et al., 2002; Coffman and MacCallum, 2005). Two or three parcels were constructed for each of the latent variables using the "item-to-construct" balance approach (Little et al., 2002), which means building each bundle by examining the item–construct relationships as represented by factor loadings in the item-level factor analyses (for a detailed description of this process, see Footling et al., 2002). In such a way, parcels typically independent a balanced number of items and had comparable reliabilities. Therefore, our model comprised iii latent variables with iii parcels each and ii latent variables with two parcels each. Summative indexes (such every bit the CRI and Friday) were treated as manifest variables.
Model fit was evaluated with the post-obit indices: (a) the Comparative Fit Alphabetize (CFI); (b) the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI); (c) the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA); (d) and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). In general, for TLI and CFI, values between 0.90 and 0.95 are considered acceptable (e.g., Bollen, 1989; Byrne, 1994; Marsh et al., 2004) and values above 0.95 are deemed to be very good (Hu and Bentler, 1999). On the other hand, RMSEA and SRMR values smaller than (or equal to) 0.08 signal a good fit (eastward.g., Bollen, 1989; Browne and Cudeck, 1993; Hu and Bentler, 1999; Marsh et al., 2004).
In guild to evaluate the statistical significance of indirect effects, which represented the "mediated" furnishings, the bootstrapping procedure was used employing 5000 samples with replacement from the full sample to construct bias-corrected 95 per centum confidence intervals (CI) (Preacher and Hayes, 2008; Hayes, 2009). Mediation typically occurs if the indirect outcome is significant, that is, the zero value is non included in the CI (Preacher and Hayes, 2008; Hayes, 2009).
Finally, to exam possible moderation effects of children'due south biological sex activity and age, and living in a geographical expanse with high COVID-19 chance, a multigroup approach inside SEM was employed as suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986). In this procedure, the invariance of the structural parameters of the proposed model was tested separately for (a) boys and girls; (b) different levels of children'due south age; (c) geographical residential area, that is, living (vs. not living) in Northern Italy. A detailed description of the procedure will be given in the "Results" section (see also Sauer and Dick, 1993; Cattelino et al., 2019). All analyses were run with statistical software SPSS 25 and MPLUS 8.3.
Results
Correlations Amidst Variables
The family chance index was positively related with parents' psychological distress and positively with lability/negativity. Parents' psychological distress was negatively related with parenting self-efficacy, parents' regulatory emotion self-efficacy, and children's emotion regulation and was positively related with children's lability/negativity. Parenting cocky-efficacy was positively related with parents' regulatory emotion self-efficacy, and children's emotion regulation, and was negatively related with children'due south lability/negativity. Parents' regulatory emotion self-efficacy was positively related with children'southward emotion regulation and negatively related with children'south lability/negativity. Finally, children'south emotion regulation was negatively related with children's lability/negativity. Correlations, means, and standard deviations are reported in Table 1.
Tabular array 1. Correlations among variables.
Arbitration Model
A SEM was employed to examination the hypothesized mediation model in which parenting self-efficacy and parents' regulatory emotional self-efficacy (related to the COVID-19 lockdown) mediated the human relationship between parents' psychological distress and both children's emotional regulation and children's lability/negativity. Moreover, parenting self-efficacy mediated the relationship between parents' regulatory emotional cocky-efficacy and both children's emotional regulation and children's lability/negativity.
In the present newspaper, the mediation assay strategy recommended by James et al. (2006) was followed. In the first step, the mediation model was tested (i.eastward., model without the straight furnishings, indicated with M med ). In the second step, a full model, including all the direct effects, was tested (indicated with M total ). The two nested models were compared via the chi-square difference test, contrasting M med with M full (Δχ2, Satorra and Bentler, 2001). A non-significant Δχ2 would reveal that the full model does non significantly increase the fit and therefore the mediation model is to be preferred since it is more than parsimonious.
The mediation model (M med ) showed an overall good fit, chi-square (83) = 140.40, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, SRMR = 0.04. The full model including direct effects (Grand full ) did non apparently ameliorate the model fit, chi-square (79) = 134.52, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, SRMR = 0.04. In fact, the two models were contrasted, and the chi-square divergence exam was not meaning, Δχ2 (4) = five.88, p = 0.20. Therefore, the mediation model (M med ) should be preferred due to existence more parsimonious compared to the total model.
In Figure 1, all measurement and structural parameters of the mediated model (1000 med ) are reported.
Effigy 1. Multivariate mediation model with structural equation modeling. Standardized coefficients are reported. Fri, family unit run a risk alphabetize; Cri, COVID take chances alphabetize; ppd, parents′ psychological distress; pser, parents′ regulatory emotional self-efficacy; pse, parenting self-efficacy; er–c, emotional regulation of children; ln–c, lability/negativity of children. All measurement parameters were statistically significant for p < 0.01. Fit Indexes Chi-square (83) = 140.twoscore, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, SRMR = 0.04. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
Parents' psychological distress (ppd) was significantly, although modestly, affected by both COVID and family risk indexes. In turn, parents' psychological distress significantly and negatively affected both parents' regulatory emotional self-efficacy (pser) and parenting self-efficacy (pse). Parents' regulatory emotional self-efficacy significantly and positively affected parenting self-efficacy. Finally, parenting cocky-efficacy positively and significantly influenced children's emotional regulation (er_c) and negatively children's lability/negativity (ln_c). More than importantly, parenting self-efficacy mediated the effect of parents' psychological distress and parents' regulatory emotional self-efficacy on both children's emotional regulation and children's lability/negativity. With the exception of those involving the COVID and family hazard indexes, all other indirect effects were statistically significant, supporting the mediated model (see Table two). In Tabular array ii, a full decomposition of total and specific indirect of the mediated model (Yard med ) are reported. The COVID and family risk indexes displayed no significant effects on the other variables except for the same influence on parents' psychological distress.
Tabular array 2. Decomposition of indirect effects of the mediated model.
Moreover, referring to the total model (Grand full ), we also decomposed total, direct and indirect effects (see Tabular array 3) with the aim to study the ratio of indirect to the direct effect and the proportion of mediated effect (MacKinnon et al., 1995).
Table iii. Decomposition of total, direct, and indirect furnishings in the full model.
In regard to the relationship betwixt ppd and er_c, the ratio of indirect to the directly effect was 1.06 (−0.xviii/−0.17 = 1.06), while with respect to the relationship between ppd and ln_c the ratio was 0.64 (0.09/0.14 = 0.64). In regard to the human relationship between ppd and er_c, virtually the 51.42% of the effect was mediated (−0.eighteen/−0.35 = 0.5142), while with respect to the human relationship between ppd and ln_c nigh the 39.13% of the upshot was mediated (0.09/0.23 = 0.3913).
In regard to the human relationship between pser and er_c, the ratio of indirect to the direct effect was −1.11 (0.20/−0.18 = −1.11), while with respect to the relationship betwixt pser and ln_c the ratio was −iii.5 (−0.07/0.02 = −3.5). More problematic was to judge, in the aforementioned fashion, the amount of mediated effect regarding the relationship between pser with both er_c and ln_c since in those cases the indirect and the direct effects take opposite signs (as can be seen in Table 3), and therefore, they tend to suppress each other, resulting in a reduced not-significant total result (pser er_c:0.02 = −0.xviii + 0.20; pser ln_c: −0.05 = −0.07 + 0.02). With respect to non-pregnant total effect, scholars accept pointed out that arbitration tin occur also in the absence of a detectable total effect if the indirect result is significant (east.thou., MacKinnon, 2008; Hayes, 2009). This is apparently the instance. In this perspective, although it cannot be admittedly claimed that effects were totally mediated and despite the presence of null total effects, information technology is worth to note that indirect effects were significant and that mediation has occurred.
Overall, we tin conclude that the hypothesized mediation model (M med ), reported in Figure 1, is consistent with the data. Moreover, the arbitration did not fit significantly worse than the full model (1000 full ) and therefore it was retained since it is more parsimonious (James et al., 2006). Additionally, all indirect effects of the mediated model (M med ) were significant, indicating that mediation has occurred (eastward.k., Preacher and Hayes, 2008; Hayes, 2009).
Multigroup Assay
Within SEM, the examination for a moderator effect can be performed using a multigroup analysis of the model in which the structural parameters are constrained equal beyond groups. Firstly, the structural parameters are freely estimated across groups to test for the baseline model. Secondly, the structural parameters are constrained to be equal across groups to test for the invariant model. In gild to compare the fit of the two models, the chi-square difference test was used (Satorra and Bentler, 2001). A not-significant chi-square indicates that the parameters cannot be ruled out to exist equal, then the invariant model should be retained and no moderation occurs. Instead, if the chi-foursquare difference betwixt the invariant and the baseline models is pregnant, which would mean that the invariant model fits significantly worse. Therefore, parameters are not equal across the groups and there is a moderation event. Results of chi-square difference tests of multigroup analyses with SEM are reported in Table 4.
Table four. Multigroup analyses for children'due south biological sex and age.
Regarding children'southward biological sex, the fit of the baseline model was chi-foursquare (134) = 185.88, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97, SRMR = 0.07, whereas the fit of the invariant model was chi-foursquare (139) = 187.98, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, SRMR = 0.08. The chi-square difference test was not significant showing that the invariant model could not be rejected (Tabular array four). This finding suggests that biological sex of the children was not a moderator variable.
In regard to children'southward age (6–10 y.o. vs. 11–13 y.o.), the fit of the baseline model was chi-square (134) = 169.55, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.04, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.06; conversely, the fit of the invariant model was chi-square (139) = 179.32, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.07. The chi-square difference exam was non meaning showing that the invariant model could not be rejected (Table 4). Therefore, children's age did not announced to moderate the mediational effects tested in our model.
Finally, turning to geographical area (Northern Italy vs. rest of Italy), the fit of the baseline model was chi-square (134) = 172.56, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.06. Instead, the fit of the invariant model was chi-square (139) = 182.53, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.09. The chi-square difference exam was non significant, showing that the invariant model did not fit significantly worse and therefore could not be rejected (Tabular array 4). This result suggested that living in a high at-take a chance area for COVID-19, as information technology was Northern Italy at the time of data drove, did not significantly bear upon the structural parameter of our hypothesized model.
Discussion
The health emergency related to the COVID-19 pandemic and the consistent restrictive measures of quarantine take upset our lifestyles and our daily life. In particular, families with children had to face an unprecedented and completely new situation in which parents all of a sudden remained the only reference point for their children. Results of the present study, indeed, showed that the COVID chance index and the family chance index partially contributed to the psychological distress of parents, although their impact was pocket-sized in terms of accounted variance. Specifically, parents with higher levels of psychological distress tendentially had a lower SES, had seen their working situation worsened during the quarantine, and were unmarried or divorced parents who had to manage their children at home alone during the quarantine. Furthermore, regarding the COVID-nineteen risk index, parents with more than psychological distress more likely had relatives, friends, or acquaintances tested positive for the SARS-COV-2, had hospitalized relatives because of the SARS-COV-two, lived in northern Italy which was the most at-chance expanse for the spread of the pandemic and for the risk of contamination, were health workers, and worked in hospital departments that treated SARS-COV-2-positive patients.
Notwithstanding, our SEM showed that parents' psychological distress impacted on the emotional regulation and lability/negativity of their children passing through the mediators' effect of parenting self-efficacy and parents' regulatory emotion self-efficacy. These findings suggested that what could have a positive effect on children's well-existence and positive emotional regulation was not just beingness exposed to low level of parents' psychological stress, just it was the fact that parents felt able to manage and conduct out their parental role and the related tasks. Our results suggest that self-confident parents tin successfully activate many personal resources that in plough seem to foreclose their children's emotional dysregulation, even in emergency situations such every bit the pandemic that increased their levels of psychological distress.
Furthermore, three multigroup analyses were performed to test the possible moderation effects of children's biological sex activity and age and of geographical area (i.east., living or non living in Northern Italy, which is the well-nigh at-adventure area for the spread of the pandemic and for the risk of contagion). The multigroup analyses showed that the hypothesized model was robust and invariant across children'southward biological sex, and age, and living (or non living) in Northern Italy. Thus, in line with Spinelli et al. (2020), parents' and children's psychological distress was not afflicted by living in the high at-risk zone for COVID-19 (vs. not living in the high at-risk zone). We can speculate that, regardless of living in a more risky surface area, relationships amid variables remained stable because this unprecedented situation characterized past the isolation and quarantine measures was perceived in the same way throughout Italy. Alternatively, it is also possible that our study did not have plenty power to detect differences in parameters between groups.
Parents should exist supported to improve their strengths and to experience able to manage their parental part and their emotions. During the quarantine, parents were the unique reference signal for their children aged between vi and thirteen years who rely much on their parents in this life stage. It is important that parents know that they tin protect their children, preventing their emotional dysregulation, using their strengths and cocky-confidence, even if they are experiencing fright and severe stress for the wellness emergency. Moreover, even if parents are exposed to loftier levels of stress, they can even so promote a positive emotional functioning in their children if they feel able to reassure their children about the wellness emergency, to organize their children's daily life during the quarantine, and to explain them what is happening.
Despite these important findings, this study had some limitations. We collected a convenience sample that was not representative of the Italian population. Moreover, emotion regulation and lability/negativity of children were reported by parents and this could be less informative. Even so, many other scholars have used this type of data collection which is very common in this kind of studies (due east.g., Trumello et al., 2018; Spinelli et al., 2020). Moreover, our data are correlational and it is also conceivable that parental distress and self-efficacy could be affected by children's lack of emotion regulation and lability/negativity. Furthermore, we assessed the parent's ain judgment of their children'south well-beingness and information technology is possible that parents who experience (according to themselves) a lot of distress too tend to judge their children'southward well-beingness more negatively irrespective of the children'southward actual well-beingness. Finally, it is non possible to infer causal relationships among variables because of the correlational nature of data. Future longitudinal study can be conducted in gild to securely test the possible long-term furnishings of parents' psychological distress related to the wellness emergency on their children'southward psychological well-being and the possible reverse causation outcome.
However, despite these limitations, the present study presents many implications for prevention and intervention programs. In order to prevent children's distress, intervention programs should start from family and parents. This programs should be aimed at increasing parents' regulatory emotional cocky-efficacy and parenting self-efficacy, by activating their adaptive strategies and resources to deal with daily tasks and reinforcing their strengths. These parents' skills could be taught and learned, representing an important resource even in emergency situations such equally a pandemic, in which parents remain the only points of reference and pedagogy for their children. These prevention programs should be primarily addressed at (but non limited to) parents who are health workers, who lived lonely with children during the quarantine, who have sick relatives, and who have a low SES and a worsened piece of work situation, in social club to prevent the bear on of their psychological distress on their children, reinforcing their belief to be able to face this difficult situation and to manage both their parents tasks and their unavoidable negative emotions.
These findings suggest how clinicians should give psychological support to parents remotely during a lockdown, reinforcing their personal strengths and working on effective parenting and regulatory efficacy strategies. Indeed, parents with behavior of self-efficacy in parenting behaviors and emotional regulation have children more emotionally regulated and psychologically good for you.
Likewise, the present results tin can be used to implement psychological and educational intervention for parents in guild to prevent their children's psychological distress. These results can also give pediatricians and psychologists important indications on how to specifically support families during the quarantine due to a global pandemic, providing advice to parents who in this catamenia plough to pediatricians or psychologists to sympathize what to do to improve the well-being of their children. Telling parents that, even if they experience negative emotions, they can do a lot to assist their children could empower parents, activating their skills and strategies. Intervention programs should exist aimed to explain parents how to communicate to their children what is happening in the world around them. Using the correct words is more than probable when parents take loftier levels of parental self-efficacy and emotional regulation self-efficacy (Jones and Prinz, 2005), and this could be very useful for parents' and children'south well-existence. Talking nigh the fear and the negative emotions related to the pandemic and the isolation would represent an of import protective factor for families' well-being. If parents understand which is the correct way to communicate nigh the pandemic with their children, they tin can probably feel more self-confident in managing their parental tasks and their children'southward emotion, and this aspect tin accept in turn positive furnishings on their children's positive adjustment.
Data Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this commodity will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ideals Statement
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and canonical by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome. Written informed consent was not provided considering data were collected via an online survey and participants were recruited via a snowball sampling. Thus, participants gave their informed consent by clicking "Yes, I have to participate to this study" on the starting time page of the online survey.
Author Contributions
MM, Ac, EC, and RB conceptualized the study and organized the data collection. MM, AC, EC, RB, CT, AB, and CC collected the data. AC and MM run the analyses and wrote the methodological and results section. MM wrote the first draft of the manuscript. EC, CT, AB, and CC contributed to revision of the final version of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Disharmonize of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absenteeism of any commercial or fiscal relationships that could be construed every bit a potential disharmonize of interest.
References
Bagozzi, R. P., and Heatherton, T. F. (1994). A general arroyo to representing multifaceted personality constructs: application to land self-esteem. Struct. Equat. Modeling 1, 35–67. doi: 10.1080/10705519409539961
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Baiocco, R., Carone, N., Ioverno, S., and Lingiardi, V. (2018). Same-sex activity and different-sex parent families in italy: is parents' sexual orientation associated with child wellness outcomes and parental dimensions? J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 39, 555–563. doi: 10.1097/dbp.0000000000000583
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Baiocco, R., Ioverno, South., Carone, North., and Lingiardi, V. (2017). Aforementioned-sex and different-sex parent families in Italy: parenting dimensions and child wellness outcomes. J. Sex. Med, 14:e241. doi: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2017.04.680
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Command. New York, NY: Freeman.
Google Scholar
Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Gerbino, K., and Pastorelli, C. (2003). Role of melancholia self-regulatory efficacy on diverse spheres of psychosocial functioning. Child Dev. 74, 769–782. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00567
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Businesswoman, R. M., and Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 51, 1173–1182. doi: x.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural Equations With Latent Variables. New York, NY: Wiley.
Google Scholar
Brooks, S. Thousand., Webster, R. K., Smith, 50. E., Woodland, Fifty., Wessely, Southward., Greenberg, Northward., et al. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce information technology: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet 395, 912–920. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(xx)30460-eight
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Browne, M. West., and Cudeck, R. (1993). "Culling means of assessing model fit," in Testing Structural Equation Models, eds G. A. Bollen and J. S. Long, (Newsbury Park, CA: Sage), 136–162.
Google Scholar
Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural Equation Modeling With EQS and EQS/Windows. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Google Scholar
Caprara, Chiliad. 5., Alessandri, G., Barbaranelli, C., and Vecchione, M. (2013a). The longitudinal relations between self-esteem and affective self-regulatory efficacy. J. Res. Personal. 47, 859–870. doi: ten.1016/j.jrp.2013.08.011
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Caprara, Yard. Five., Di Giunta, L., Pastorelli, C., and Eisenberg, N. (2013b). Mastery of negative bear upon: a hierarchical model of emotional self-efficacy behavior. Psychol. Appraise. 25, 105–116. doi: 10.1037/a0029136
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Cattelino, East., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., and Chirumbolo, A. (2019). From external regulation to school achievement: the arbitration of self-efficacy at schoolhouse. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 60, 127–133. doi: ten.1016/j.appdev.2018.09.007
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Cluver, L., Lachman, J. M., Sherr, L., Wessels, I., Krug, E., Rakotomalala, S., et al. (2020). Parenting in a time of COVID-19. Lancet 395:e64. doi: ten.1016/S0140-6736(20)30736-four
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Coffman, D. L., and MacCallum, R. C. (2005). Using parcels to convert path analysis models into latent variable models. Mult. Behavi. Res. twoscore, 235–259. doi: ten.1207/s15327906mbr4002_4
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd Edn. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Google Scholar
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., and Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 24, 385–396. doi: ten.2307/2136404
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K. D., and Panneton, R. (2017). Parental Stress and Early on Child Evolution. Adaptive and Maladaptive Outcomes. Cham: Springer International Publishing, doi: x.1007/978-3-319-55376-4
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Di Maggio, R., Zappulla, C., and Pace, U. (2016). The relationship betwixt emotion noesis, emotion regulation and adjustment in preschoolers: a mediation model. J. Child Fam. Stud. 25, 2626–2635. doi: 10.1007/s10826-016-0409-6
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Dumka, L. E., Stoerzinger, H. D., Jackson, K. Grand., and Roosa, M. W. (1996). Examination of the cross-cultural and cross-linguistic communication equivalence of the parenting self-agency measure. Fam. Relat. 45, 216–222. doi: ten.2307/585293
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Eisenèberg, N., Zhou, Q., Spinrad, T. L., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., and Liew, J. (2005). Relations among positive parenting, children'south effortful control, and externalizing bug: a three-wave longitudinal study. Child Dev. 76, 1055–1071. doi: ten.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00897.x
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Giallo, R., Cooklin, A., Wade, C., D'Esposito, F., and Nicholson, J. M. (2014). Maternal postnatal mental health and afterwards emotional–behavioural evolution of children: the mediating role of parenting behaviour. Kid Intendance Wellness Dev. xl, 327–336. doi: 10.1111/cch.12028
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Glatz, T., and Buchanan, C. M. (2015). Change and predictors of change in parental self-efficacy from early to center boyhood. Dev. Psychol. 51, 1367–1379. doi: ten.1037/dev0000035
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Across businesswoman and kenny: statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Commun. Monogr. 76, 408–420. doi: 10.1080/03637750903310360
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., Lucas, C. P., Wu, P., Mandell, D. J., Goodwin, R. D., et al. (2005). Psychopathology among New York City public school children vi months after September 11. Archi. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 545–551. doi: ten.1001/archpsyc.62.5.545
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hu, L. T., and Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct. Equ. Modeling 6, 1–55. doi: ten.1080/10705519909540118
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
James, L. R., Mulaik, Due south. A., and Brett, J. M. (2006). A tale of two methods. Organ. Res. Methods nine, 233–244. doi: 10.1177/1094428105285144
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Jiao, West. Y., Wang, L. N., Liu, J., Fang, South. F., Jiao, F. Y., Pettoello-Mantovani, Yard., et al. (2020). Behavioral and emotional disorders in children during the COVID-19 epidemic. J. Pediatr. 221, 264–266. doi: ten.1016/j.jpeds.2020.03.013
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Jones, T. Fifty., and Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and kid aligning: a review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 25, 341–363. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Leary, Yard. R., and Hoyle, R. H. (eds) (2009). Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Google Scholar
Lilliputian, T. D., Cunningham, West. A., Shahar, Thou., and Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to package: exploring the question, weighing the merits. Struct. Equ. Modelling 9, 151–173. doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Liu, X., Kakade, Thou., Fuller, C. J., Fan, B., Fang, Y., Kong, J., et al. (2012). Depression subsequently exposure to stressful events: lessons learned from the severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic. Compr. Psychiatry 53, 15–23. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.02.003
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to Statistical Mediation Assay. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Warsi, Thousand., and Dwyer, J. H. (1995). A simulation study of mediated outcome measures. Mult. Behav. Res. 30, 41–62. doi: ten.1207/s15327906mbr3001_3
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Marsh, H. W., Hau, 1000. T., and Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: annotate on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler'southward (1999) findings. Struct. Equ. Modeling 11, 320–341. doi: x.1207/s15328007sem1103_2
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Molina, P., Sala, Thou. N., Zappulla, C., Bonfigliuoli, C., Cavioni, V., Zanetti, M. A., et al. (2014). The emotion regulation checklist–italian translation. validation of parent and teacher versions. Eur. J. Dev. Psychol. eleven, 624–634. doi: x.1080/17405629.2014.898581
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Mondo, Yard., Sechi, C., and Cabras, C. (2019). Psychometric evaluation of three versions of the Italian perceived stress calibration. Curr. Psychol. 1–9. doi: 10.1155/2013/608356
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Pallini, Due south., Chirumbolo, A., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., Laghi, F., and Eisenberg, N. (2018). The relation of attachment security condition to effortful self-regulation: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 144, 501–531. doi: 10.1037/bul0000134
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Pallini, S., Morelli, M., Chirumbolo, A., Baiocco, R., Laghi, F., and Eisenberg, N. (2019). Zipper and attention bug: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Res. 74:101772. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101772
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Preacher, Chiliad. J., and Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect furnishings in multiple mediator models. Behav. Res. Methods 40, 879–891. doi: 10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., and Morawska, A. (eds) (2018). Handbook of Parenting and Child Development Across the Lifespan. New York, NY: Springer.
Google Scholar
Satorra, A., and Bentler, P. Thousand. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square examination statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika 66, 507–514. doi: x.1007/BF02296192
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Sauer, P. L., and Dick, A. (1993). Using moderator variables in structural equation models. Adv. Consumer Res. 20, 637–640.
Google Scholar
Scott, W. D., and Cervone, D. (2002). The impact of negative affect on operation standards: evidence for an affect-as-information mechanism. Cogn. Ther. Res. 26, 19–37. doi: x.1023/A:1013837520031
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Shahyad, Due south., and Mohammadi, M. T. (2020). Psychological impacts of COVID-19 outbreak on mental wellness status of society individuals: a narrative review. J. Milit. Med. 22, 184–192. doi: ten.30491/JMM.22.2.184
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Spinelli, M., Lionetti, F., Pastore, M., and Fasolo, Thou. (2020). Parents' stress and children's psychological problems in families facing the COVID-nineteen outbreak in Italian republic. Front. Psychol. 11:1713. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01713
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Sprang, Yard., and Silman, M. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents and youth after wellness-related disasters. Disaster Med. Public Health Prep. seven, 105–110. doi: x.1017/dmp.2013
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Stack, D. M., Serbin, 50. A., Enns, L. N., Ruttle, P. 50., and Barrieau, L. (2010). Parental effects on children's emotional evolution over fourth dimension and across generations. Infants Young Child. 23, 52–69. doi: 10.1097/IYC.0b013e3181c97606
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Tillema, J. Fifty., Cervone, D., and Scott, W. D. (2001). Negative mood, perceived self-efficacy, and personal standards in dysphoria: the effects of contextual cues on self-defeating patterns of noesis. Cogn. Ther. Res. 25, 535–549. doi: 10.1023/A:1005511730618
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Trumello, C., Babore, A., Candelori, C., Morelli, G., and Bianchi, D. (2018). Relationship with parents, emotion regulation, and callous-unemotional traits in adolescents'. Internet habit. BioMed Res. Int. 2018, 1–10. doi: 10.1155/2018/7914261
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
United Nations, (2020). Policy Brief: Covid-19 and the Need for Activity on Mental Health. New York. NY: United Nations.
Google Scholar
Wang, Chiliad., Zhang, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, J., and Jiang, F. (2020). Mitigate the effects of home solitude on children during the COVID-nineteen outbreak. Lancet 395, 945–947. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(xx)30547-X
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Weaver, C. M., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., and Wilson, Grand. Northward. (2008). Parenting self-efficacy and problem behavior in children at high risk for early conduct problems: The mediating role of maternal low. Infant Behav. Dev. 31, 594–605. doi: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.07.006
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Xie, X., Xue, Q., Zhou, Y., Zhu, K., Liu, Q., Zhang, J., et al. (2020). Mental health status among children in home solitude during the coronavirus illness 2019 outbreak in Hubei Province, Red china. JAMA Pediatr. 174, 898–900. doi: x.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1619
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.584645/full
0 Response to "Assignment 0406 Review and Critical Thinking Parenting Skills"
ارسال یک نظر